The paradigm shift is ... Definition, examples. Thomas Kuhn, "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions"

When considering the development process in general form, philosophers formulated its key laws. Within one of them, a strategy for progress is defined. It is called the law of negation of negation. In accordance with it, the development occurs spirally. At each turn, there is a repetition of processes, but at higher levels. Another law determines the tactics of development. Hegel called it the transition of quantity to quality. In accordance with this law, development consists in a gradual increase in the number of changes that do not have obvious new signs. But after reaching a certain value, a qualitative leap takes place. This limit Hegel called a measure.

The process of development of social consciousness, in particular in the research and cultural sphere, occurs through the accumulation of certain quantitative changes. When they reach a measure, a qualitative leap arises - the scientific revolution. Changing paradigms is at the same time a key characteristic of the development process. Let us consider further how it occurs and what events about it can testify.

Paradigm - what is it in simple words?

This term has Greek roots. The model of problem formulation and its solution, which is a priority for a certain period, is the paradigm. What is it in simple words? Paradeigma is a definite fashion for the method of setting and solving research problems. Deviation from it with a high degree of probability will not find a proper understanding among scientists. In practice, there are various examples. The paradigm shift is most easily illustrated by comparing one or another period.

Specificity of occurrence

Changing the paradigm is a long process. It does not happen quickly and is accompanied by the gradual introduction of a new idea into the consciousness of an increasing number of scientists. After a while, spreading, the new model becomes the norm of perception. Many things in life are done by analogy. Thus, the solution of mathematical problems is carried out using known solutions. Facts that contradict the established model are usually perceived as heresy or completely ignored. Nevertheless, as the history of science shows, the paradigm shift is a natural phenomenon.

Schedule

When the new facts reach a certain amount, the established model is rapidly destroyed. On its basis, a new system is being formed. It uses other concepts and methods, through which an adequate interpretation of the accumulated information is carried out. The replacement of scientific paradigms is often illustrated by a graph. The time axis t is plotted along the horizontal axis, and certain abstract values of n and p are plotted along the vertical axis. The latter characterize the degree of development of discipline and the level of progress of technology for the specified period. The growth of the latter is indicated by a dashed line, and the change of the first is indicated by a solid line. The horizontal sections correspond to the steady-state models. On steep segments there is a paradigm shift. This phenomenon has received a corresponding name in the modern literature. On the steepest sections, the qualitative leap, which was mentioned above, is happening. It is called the scientific and technological revolution.

The development of natural science

The most famous ancient written sources include information from early China, Greece and Egypt. Their age is about three thousand years. Basically, they contain information from the field of medicine, mathematics, astronomy, comprehension of the foundations of being. Scientific activity in ancient times was carried out by scattered scholars - sages. At that time there was no clear model of perception, which was due to the almost complete lack of interaction between philosophers. Probably, thanks to this, the key ideas of the basic theories, applied today, arose.

For example, not many people know why the division of the circle is carried out exactly 360 degrees. Meanwhile, such a model arose in ancient Egypt. It was believed that the year includes 360 days. During this time, the Sun describes a circle. Accordingly, one day was equal to the displacement of the Sun by 1/360 of the arc. Subsequently, this value was borrowed by the Arabs and was given the name "degree". In the works of ancient Greek philosophers, one can consider a certain similarity of the paradigm. Ancient scientists were inherent in the idea of the integrity of the universe. At the same time, science did not separate them into separate disciplines and acted as natural philosophy.

Ancient thinkers

The most famous ancient scholars include Thales from Miletus, Ptolemy, Archimedes, Democritus and, of course, Aristotle. The first, apparently, was the first who informed the world about the phenomenon of electrification. Democritus is credited with the theory of the atomic structure of substances. Archimedes laid the foundations of hydrostatics and mechanics. Ptolemy developed a scheme for the construction of the universe, to which he justified his astrological constructions.

Meanwhile, Aristotle is considered a key figure in the development of the scientific paradigm. He was the tutor of Macedon. The great commander never forgot his teacher. Aristotle received not only a variety of material values, but also documents that contained the wisdom of the conquered Macedonian civilizations. Due to this support, the scientist was able to form a large scientific school. Aristotle formulated the foundations of formal logic, created the first systematic collection of all theories of his time. It was his school that became the community that formed the ancient paradigm in science. Subsequently, the views of the scholar canonized the Roman Catholic Church. His ideas remained a priority for a very long time. The replacement of the paradigm in scientific knowledge at that time was severely suppressed. In this case, the Holy Inquisition played a special role . This is confirmed by the examples of Nicholas Copernicus and Galileo Galileo.

The Weightless Theory

The paradigm shift is, first of all, the destruction of the ideas that existed before. With the development of society, many of Aristotle's views ceased to be relevant and sufficient. Over time, the basis for explaining many natural phenomena was the idea of weightless, subtle substances that acted as carriers of certain physical qualities. The explanation of optical effects began to be based on the theory of propagation of oscillations in weightless ethers. Heat began to be identified with the all-pervasive fluid, which was called heat.

Magnetic and electrical phenomena also found their explanation. In particular, their existence was associated with the presence of two liquids having multipolar charges, and one magnetic. Subsequently, Franklin, the president of America, left only one of them. Its presence was denoted by the sign "+", and the defect, respectively, "-". In the modern world, this model is reflected in the division of charges into negative and positive ones. The theory of weightless people has long ceased to exist, but the designations adopted in it have remained.

Features

The use of the paradigm implies the application of a historical approach in the process of discussing a particular theory. Within the framework of social development, the existence of truth refers to subjective phenomena. As the key reason for changing paradigms, the following is called. Modification of models is conditioned by the passage of time and, accordingly, the development of the perception of society. The American philosopher and scientist Thomas Kuhn explained how the theory is being replaced. The model adopted at a particular time delineates a certain range of issues and problems that have both a sense and a solution. All events and phenomena that do not fall into it, consideration does not deserve. This suggests that at each stage of development of society there is a normal theory that operates within the framework of the established model.

"The structure of scientific revolutions"

This is the name of the most influential book, according to scholars of the twentieth century, which reveals the essence of changes in the consciousness of society. Thomas Kuhn, its author, looked at the development as a destruction of the old and the emergence of new psychological views on the problem. Due to them, in his opinion, new theories and hypotheses arise. The concept of changing paradigms, derived by the author, did not answer many questions. However, it showed in a new way the essence of the urgent problems in their analysis. Kun's work is bold and contains innovative ideas. This led to the popularity of the book and the emergence of many disputes around it.

Contents of the theory

By the definition of a philosopher, the scientific revolution represents an epistemological change in the existing model. Under it, the author means achievements recognized by all scientists and giving over a period of time a scheme for formulating problems and solutions to the community. The paradigm shift is, in the philosopher's opinion, the process of detecting anomalies that can not be explained with the help of a universally accepted model. The current theory should be viewed not simply as the current scheme, but also as a whole worldview in which it is present along with the conclusions obtained in its use.

The conflict of paradigms, taking place in the process of qualitative leaps, is primarily the inconsistency of different value systems, methods of solving, measuring, observing, practicing, but not just the world's pictures. The model proposed by the author differs from the theory of neo-positivists in that it emphasizes the individuality of researchers, but not on abstracting activity into an exclusively philosophical or logical one.

Practical explanations

An example of how the replacement of the paradigm forces one to treat the same information in different ways is the optical illusion of the "hare-duck". Sooner or later, within the discipline, enough information will accumulate about the significant anomalies that come into conflict with the existing theory. At such a moment, a scientific crisis sets in. In the course of it, new ideas are tested, which have not been taken into consideration or rejected before then. As a result, the crisis in science ends with a paradigm shift. The new model acquires its supporters. From this moment begins an original intellectual battle of the adherents of the old and the paradigms that have come to replace it. The increase in the number of competing options, the desire and willingness to experience something new, a discussion of fundamental principles indicate a transition from a normal research process to an extraordinary process.

As an example from the physics of the 20th century, Maxwell's electromagnetical worldview can be replaced by the relativistic Einstein. This transition was accompanied by a series of heated debates with empirical information. As a result of disputes, the theory of Einstein was more generally accepted.

Developments

In practice, there are several classic examples of the paradigm shift. Meanwhile, a number of scientists state that the observation of a pure replacement of one model of another can only be considered on a rather abstract cut of any change. If you study the process in detail, it is really difficult to determine the moment of the jump. The following events fall under the definition of Kuhn:

1. Newton's unification of classical physics in the related mechanistic theory.
2. Development of the Darwinian theory of evolution. She rejected creationism from the position of a fundamental explanation for the diversity of life on Earth.
3. The development of quantum physics. Discipline predetermined the emergence of classical mechanics.
4. Adopting the theory of tectonic plates as an explanation for large-scale changes in the geology of the planet.

Classical theory

It was finally formed by the beginning of the 20th century. It was based on the principle of causality. It is based on the notion that the consequence uniquely and completely follows from the circumstances that generate it. This interpretation of the cause-effect relationship provoked, in turn, the idea of the complete predetermination of the upcoming events. The essence of the theory was expressed in the principle of scientific determinism, derived by Laplace. In accordance with it, all events can be precomputed, if a certain number of equations are solved from classical physics. Everything seemed clear and simple, and many phenomena were explained thanks to this model.

However, the improvement of technology, electronic devices in the first place, gave birth to a new scientific and technological revolution. A qualitative leap occurred relatively recently. Literature, published in the middle of the last century, still contains signs of controversy, justification of the rightness of the new. At the same time, the modern generation perceives these innovations as a matter of course.

Conclusion

The scientific and technological revolution, which resulted in the emergence of a modern worldview theory, falls on the first decades of the 20th century. It was marked first of all by the formulation of a quantum theory, which nullified the existence of classical determinism. This revolution also led to fundamental changes in the understanding of the essence of chemical bonds. The new paradigm is distinguished by the interpretation of the principle of causality. As a key characteristic of the current model is the recognition of the ambiguity of the consequences arising from specific circumstances. The causes give rise to certain events with a certain probability.

It is worth saying that many creators of the modern revolution in the field of science and technology, being adherents of the classical natural-scientific model of perception of the world, have died, and have not been able to reconcile definitively with the lack of the opportunity to explain the discoveries made by them with the help of earlier concepts.