The Iron Age. Ancient history

The abundance of secrets lurks in world history, and so far researchers have left no hope of discovering something new in known facts. Exciting and unusual seem moments when you realize that once on the same land, which we now walk we lived dinosaurs, knights fought, ancient camps broke camps . World history in the basis of its periodization lays two principles that are relevant for the formation of the human race - material for the production of tools and manufacturing technology. In accordance with these principles, the concepts "Stone Age", "Bronze Age", "Iron Age" appeared. Each of these periodizations became a step in the development of mankind, another round of evolution and knowledge of human capabilities. Naturally, in history there were absolutely passive moments. Since time immemorial, and to this day, there has been a regular replenishment of knowledge and mastering new ways of obtaining useful materials.

World history and the first methods of dating time periods

Natural sciences have become a tool for dating time intervals. In particular, the radiocarbon method, geological dating, dendrochronology can be cited. Rapid development of ancient man allowed to improve existing technologies. Approximately 5 thousand years ago, when the written period in the history of mankind began, there were other prerequisites for dating, based on the time of existence of various states and civilizations. Tentatively believe that the period of allocation of a person from the animal world began about two million years ago, until the fall of the Western Roman Empire, which occurred in 476 AD, was the period of antiquity. Before the Renaissance, the Middle Ages were. Until the end of the First World War, the period of New History lasted, and now it's time for the New One. Historians of different times put their "anchor" reference, for example, Herodotus paid special attention to the struggle of Asia with Europe. Scientists of a later period considered the approval of the Roman Republic as the main event in the development of civilization. Many historians agree in their assumption that culture and art did not matter much for the Iron Age, since the tools of war and labor came first.

Background of the Metal Age

In primitive history, a stone age is distinguished, including Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic. Each of the periods is marked by the development of man and his innovations in stone processing. At first, the manual chopper was the most widespread of the guns. Later, tools appeared from the elements of the stone, and not the whole nodule. For this period, the development of fire, the creation of first clothing from skins, the first religious cults and housing arrangements. During the semi-nomadic way of life of man and hunting for large animals, more sophisticated weapons were required. Further development of the technology of stone processing fell on the turn of the millennia and the end of the Stone Age, when agriculture and cattle-breeding spread, ceramics appeared. In the era of metal were mastered copper and the technology of its processing. The beginning of the Iron Age laid the front of the work for the future. The study of the properties of metals consistently led to the discovery of bronze and its spread. The age of stone, bronze, iron is a single harmonious process of the development of mankind, based on mass movements of peoples.

Actual data on the duration of the era

The spread of iron refers to the primitive and early class history of mankind. The characteristic features of the period are tendencies in metallurgy and the production of guns. Even in the ancient world formed the notion of the classification of centuries according to the material. The early Iron Age has been studied and continues to be studied by scientists in various fields. In Western Europe voluminous works are published
Görnes, Montelius, Tischler, Reineka, Kostshevsky, etc. In Eastern Europe, Gorodtsov, Spitsyn, Gauthier, Tretyakov, Smirnov, Artamonov, Grakov produced corresponding textbooks, monographs and maps on the history of the Ancient World . Often, the distribution of iron is considered a characteristic feature of the culture of primitive tribes inhabiting outside civilizations. In fact, all countries in their time experienced the Iron Age. Bronze age in this case was only a prerequisite. He did not occupy such a vast time in history. Chronologically, the Iron Age dates from the 9th to the 7th century BC. At this time, many of the tribes of Europe and Asia were given a boost to the development of their own metallurgy of iron. Since this metal remains the most important material of production, modernity is also a part of this century.

Culture period

The development of production and the spread of iron quite logically led to the modernization of culture and all social life. There were economic prerequisites for working relations and the disintegration of the tribal way of life. Ancient history marks the accumulation of values, the growth of property inequality and a mutually beneficial exchange of parties. Widespread expansion, the formation of class society and the state began. More money was transferred to the private property of the chosen minority, slavery arose and the stratification of society progressed.

How did the metal age manifest itself in the USSR?

At the end of the second millennium BC iron appeared on the territory of the Union. Among the most ancient places of development are Western Georgia and Transcaucasia. Monuments of the early Iron Age were preserved in the South European part of the USSR. But the metallurgy got mass popularity here in the first millennium BC, which is confirmed by a number of archaeological artifacts from bronze in Transcaucasia, cultural relics of the North Caucasus and the Black Sea region, etc. During the excavations of Scythian sites, priceless monuments of the early Iron Age were discovered. The finds were made at the Kamensky fort near Nikopol.

History of materials in Kazakhstan

Historically, the Iron Age is divided into two periods. This is an early one, which lasted from the 8th to the 3rd century BC, and the later one, which lasted from the 3rd century BC to the 6th century AD. Each country has in its history the period of the spread of iron, but the features of this process are highly dependent on the region. Thus, the Iron Age on the territory of Kazakhstan was marked by events in three main regions. In southern Kazakhstan, cattle breeding and irrigated agriculture are common. The climatic conditions of Western Kazakhstan did not involve farming. And the North, East and Central Kazakhstan was inhabited by people adapted to the harsh winter. These three regions, radically different in terms of living conditions, became the basis for the creation of three Kazakh zhuzes. Southern Kazakhstan became the place of education of the Senior Zhuz. The lands of the North, East and Central Kazakhstan became the haven of the Middle Zhuz. Western Kazakhstan represents the Younger Zhuz.

The Iron Age in Central Kazakhstan

The endless steppes of Central Asia have long been the residence of nomads. Here, the ancient history is represented by burial burial grounds, which are priceless monuments of the Iron Age. Especially often in the region there were mounds with a painting or "mustaches", which, according to scientists, perform the functions of a beacon and a compass in the steppe. The attention of historians is attracted by the Tasmolin culture, named for the terrain in the Pavlodar region, where the first excavations of a man and a horse were recorded in a large and small barrow. Archaeologists of Kazakhstan consider tumuli of Tasmolin culture as the most widespread monuments of the early Iron Age.

Features of the culture of Northern Kazakhstan

This region is characterized by the presence of cattle. Local residents moved from agriculture to a settled and nomadic way of life. Tasmolinskaya culture is revered in this region. The attention of the researchers of the monuments of the early Iron Age is attracted to the burial mound Birlik, Alypakash, Bekteniz and three settlements: Karlyga, Borki and Kenotkel. On the right bank of the Yesil River, the fortification of the early Iron Age was preserved. Development here has received the art of melting and processing of non-ferrous metals. Produced metal products were transported to Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Kazakhstan for several centuries ahead of its neighbors in the development of ancient metallurgy and therefore became a communicator between the metallurgical centers of their country, Siberia and Eastern Europe.

"Steregushchie gold"

The majestic mounds of East Kazakhstan predominantly accumulated in the Shiliktinsky valley. There are more than fifty of them here. In 1960, the largest of the burial mounds, which is called Golden, was investigated. This unique monument was erected in the 8th-9th century BC. Zaisan district of East Kazakhstan allows to explore more than two hundred of the largest barrows, of which 50 are called Royal and can contain gold. In Shiliktinsky Valley is the oldest in the land of Kazakhstan, the royal burial of the 8th century BC, which was discovered by Professor Toleubayev. Among the archaeologists this discovery made a noise, just like the third "golden man" of Kazakhstan. The burial was in clothes adorned with 4325 gold figured plates. The most interesting finding is a pentagonal star with lapis lazuli. Such an object symbolizes power and greatness. This became an additional proof that Shilikty, Besshatyr, Issyk, Berel, Boraldai are sacred places for ritual ceremonies, sacrifices and prayers.

The Early Iron Age in the Culture of the Nomads

Documentary evidence of the ancient culture of Kazakhstan is not so much preserved. Most of the information is obtained from archaeological sites and excavations. Nomads are much spoken about song and dance art. Separately it is worth noting the skill in the manufacture of ceramic vessels and paintings on silver bowls. The spread of iron in everyday life and production was the impetus to the improvement of the unique heating system: a chimney that was horizontally laid along the wall, evenly heated the entire house. Nomads invented many familiar things today for both domestic use and for use in wartime. They came up with trousers, stirrups, a yurt and a curved sword. To protect horses, metal shells were developed. The defense of the warrior itself was ensured by iron armor.

Achievements and opening period

The Iron Age was the third in line for stone and bronze. But in terms of value, undoubtedly, it is considered the first. Up to the present, iron has remained the material basis of all inventions of mankind. All important discoveries in the field of production are associated with its application. This metal has a higher melting point than copper. In its pure form, natural iron does not exist, and it is very difficult to carry out the process of melting from ore because of its high refractoriness. This metal caused global changes in the life of the steppe tribes. Compared with the preceding archaeological epochs, the Iron Age is the shortest, but most effective. Initially, mankind learned meteorite iron. Some original products and jewelry from it were found on the territory of Egypt, Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. Chronologically, these relics can be attributed to the first half of the third millennium BC. In the second millennium BC, the technology for obtaining iron from ore was developed, but for a long time this metal was considered uncommon and expensive.

Wide production of weapons and implements of iron began to be practiced in Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor, the Transcaucasus and India. The spread of this metal, as well as steel, has provoked a technical revolution that extends human power over nature. Now the clearing of large forest areas for crops has been simplified. The modernization of tools and the improvement of land cultivation were carried out promptly. Accordingly, operatively learned new crafts, especially blacksmith and weapon. The shoemakers, who received more advanced tools, were not left out. Bricklayers and miners began to work more efficiently.

Summarizing the results of the Iron Age, it can be noted that by the beginning of our era, all the major varieties of hand tools (except for screws and articulated scissors) were already in use. Thanks to the use of iron in production, the construction of roads became much simpler, military equipment advanced one step ahead, and a metal coin entered the market. The Iron Age accelerated and provoked the disintegration of the primitive communal system, as well as the formation of class society and statehood. Many communities during this period adhered to the so-called military democracy.

Possible ways of development

It is worth noting that meteorite iron in small quantities existed even in Egypt, but the spread of metal became possible with the beginning of the melting of ore. Initially, the iron was melted only when such a need arose. Thus, fragments of metal impregnations were found in the monuments of Syria and Iraq, which were erected no later than 2700 years before our era. But after the 11th century BC, the forge craftsmen of Eastern Anatolia learned the science of the systematic manufacture of iron objects. The secrets and subtleties of the new science were kept secret and passed down from generation to generation. The first historical finds confirming the widespread use of metal for the manufacture of tools are recorded in Israel, namely in Gerar near Gaza. There were found a huge number of hoes, sickles and coulters of iron, dating from the period after 1200 BC. Also in the places of excavation were found melting furnaces.

Special technologies for metal processing belong to the masters of Western Asia, from whom masters of Greece, Italy and the rest of Europe borrowed them. The British technical revolution can be attributed to the period after 700 BC, and there it began and developed very smoothly. Egypt and North Africa showed an interest in mastering the metal at about the same time with the further transfer of skill to the south. Chinese craftsmen have almost completely abandoned bronze, preferring a sharpened iron. European colonists brought their knowledge about the technology of metal processing in Australia and the New World. After the invention of blow-bellows, iron casting became widespread on a massive scale. Cast iron has become an indispensable material for the creation of all kinds of household utensils and military equipment, which was a productive impetus for the development of metallurgy.