The main stages of the development of economic science, sections and methods. Modern economic science

The life of society is very diverse. To study various areas of its existence, mankind has created many scientific disciplines. One of them is the economic theory. The study of this science must necessarily begin with the history of its emergence and development. This will allow us to better understand the difficult discipline.

Definition of economy

There are various interpretations of this multifaceted and capacious discipline, each of which is true. On the one hand, the economy is the economic activity of a person. On the other - national or household. The conversation can go about the economy of the enterprise, industry or the whole country. But anyway, this theory is the foundation of any society.

It represents the life support system of the state, solving the tasks not only of production, but also the further distribution and consumption of various goods. We can safely say that the economy originated with a man. And today it continues to exist for the benefit of all people.

Economic science

The emergence of any of the disciplines is preceded by the attempt of people to solve certain issues related to the provision of their vital functions. Economics and economics also appeared for this reason. It is worth saying that people had the beginnings of knowledge in this discipline in primitive society, when a certain part of any extracted product was received by each of its members.

Economic science is studying rules that help the state, firm or person solve their economic problems. That is why knowledge of this discipline is important for the development of any society.

Stages of formation

Economics and economic science continued to develop together with man. The norms and rules of this discipline were first recorded in documents published in the states of the Ancient East. It was the code of laws of Babylonia, which was adopted back in 8 BC. E. Economic precepts of humanity are recorded in the Bible. They refer to the 2nd and 1st millennia BC.

It is believed that the main stages in the development of economic science nevertheless originate in an ancient society. The emergence of this scientific discipline is associated with the works of the philosophers of ancient Rome and Greece. Initially, their writings were considered only by housekeeping and housekeeping.

It is also believed that the main stages in the formation of economic science as an independent discipline took place only in the 16-17 centuries. It happened in the period when the capitalist system appeared. It was at this time that relations began to develop within enterprises and between families, and international and national markets began to be formed. The state began to pay more and more attention to the economic life of society. All this and caused a wider dissemination of discipline on the production and consumption of various goods.

The main stages in the development of economic science include the emergence of political economy. This new term first appeared in the 17th century. After the publication of the book by Antoine de Montchretien - an economist from France. The work, which was called "Treatise on Political Economy," developed a theory about the need for strict government control over the existing market. Here, management of the household was no longer considered. Political economy became a science about the regularity of the formation of the national market. In other words, the discipline has significantly expanded the scope of its study. These are the main stages in the development of economic science (briefly).

To date, the theory of the production and distribution of various benefits in each country is called differently. In Turkey and Sweden, for example, it is a "national economy", and in Finland this term sounds like "farming theory". In modern Russia, the name of the discipline is "general economic theory."

Subject of study

At all times, economists have been interested in a wide range of problems facing human society. That is why there was no single interpretation of the subject of studying this discipline. If some experts believed that science deals with the material well-being of people, others argued that the theory solves the problems of the organization of consumption and exchange. There were many other opinions.

Modern economic science proceeds from the fact that the subject of its study is the problem of limited resources of society and the vastness of the material needs of man. In the present society, discipline solves the problem of obtaining the maximum benefit with the minimum costs incurred.

The system of economic sciences is a general theory. In this discipline, three main sections are distinguished:

- Introduction to economic theory;
- microeconomics;
- Macroeconomics.

All sections of economic science are of great importance. However, the first of them is especially important. He performs fundamental and methodological functions. That is why without its study it is impossible to master both micro- and macroeconomics.

The second section of science considers small business units, giving an explanation for the choice that firms and individuals make. As for macroeconomics, here we study large-scale market phenomena that arise at the level of the state and the whole society. The second and third sections of economic science have no clear distinctions. Micro- and macroeconomics are closely related. And this is not surprising, because all decisions taken at the level of economic units have a direct impact on the formation of the national market.

Functions of economic discipline

What is the role of science in the production and distribution of goods created by society? The main function of the economy is cognitive. Discipline describes, generalizes and explains all processes in the spheres of production and consumption.

The system of economic sciences is based on the economy, which is the main methodological basis of all its directions. This is the second main function of this discipline. The theory develops tools and tools for studying the economy of trade and industry, transport and catering, and so on.

Economic science also performs a practical function. It indicates all the desirable and undesirable steps and measures that are important for the prosperity of society at this stage of its development.

There are certain socio-economic sciences. Their main function is to study various aspects of the individual's behavior in society. Such sciences include sociology and political science, as well as psychology. The subject of the study of these disciplines partly coincides with the subject of the study of economic theory.

Methodology

The subject considered by any science is studied using certain methods. Methods of economic science are different. In their list are:

1. Formal logic. With its help, economic phenomena are studied by their form and structure.
2. Analysis. This method involves studying each part of the subject separately.
3. Induction. This is the method of following from the particular to the general and constructing on the basis of the collected facts a certain theory.
4. Deduction. The basic principle of this method is to construct hypotheses that are subsequently compared with the facts.
5. Comparison. This is a method that reveals the similarity and difference of processes, as well as phenomena, and makes it possible to reveal a new through what has already been studied.
6. Analogy. This method implies the transfer of some properties from the already studied phenomenon to the unknown.
7. Dialectics. This is a method that uses a vast set of various methods of cognition.
8. Scientific abstraction. It presupposes the invariance of all phenomena of the economic sphere, in addition to the studied one.
9. Historical method. This method allows you to evaluate the features that have different economic systems.
10. The logical method. Its application provides for a transition from simple to more complex.

The existing methods of economics include economic and mathematical modeling. It is a simplified description of reality. Such a model should help in determining the causes of various economic phenomena, their changes, patterns, and also the consequences that they can bear.

The origin of economic science

The systematization of discipline so important for human society went in parallel with the formation of states. The first stages of economic science took place during the heyday of the countries of the Ancient World. The origins of this discipline are reflected in the writings of philosophers and some state rulers. These thinkers sought to idealize the slave society and subsistence economy, while relying on the norms of ethics, morality and morality.

The initial main stages of the development of economic science were traversed by the philosophers of ancient Greece. In their writings they systematized naive fragmentary ideas about the production and distribution of material wealth. At the same time, a new discipline was born, which has a scientific appearance.

In the list of these outstanding thinkers are Xenophon, Plato and Aristotle. And the main stages of the development of economic science from the rise to our days can not be described without mentioning these scientists. After all, Plato introduced the concept of "economy". This philosopher made the first attempt to substantiate the correct division of labor and identified such industries as trade, craft and agriculture. Xenophon preferred natural economy and considered the existence of free people and slaves natural.

Plato made a huge contribution to the development of economic science. He created the theory of an ideal state, the basis of which is justice. In his opinion, with such a social system everyone should be engaged only in what he is able to do to the greatest extent.

Aristotle also contributed to the development of economic science. In his works, all the fields of knowledge that existed at that time were reflected. According to Aristotle, slavery is the basis of any production, and slaves are living tools. At the same time he argued that man is not able to exist outside the state and society.

The development of economic science was continued in the era of feudal economy. At the same time, the theory of production and distribution of goods had a theological character. The works of philosophers of the Middle Ages justified the economic domination of church and secular feudal lords. One such scholar was the Arab statesman, philosopher and historian Ibn Khaldun.

The main stages in the development of economic science and economic systems can not be described without mentioning his works. Ibn Khaldun insisted on the eradication of greed and waste, spoke out negatively about large usurious operations and asserted the pleasurable nature of trade. In contrast to the theories of the philosophers of the Ancient World, the Arab thinker made money, made in the form of gold and silver coins, into the category of the most important elements of economic life.

In Western Europe, the most significant authors of economic thought in the Middle Ages were Augustine the Blessed and Thomas Aquinas. The first of these two philosophers insisted on the universal necessity of labor, expressing the idea of the equivalence of the mental and physical form. At the same time, the thinker considered it a great sin to receive commercial profits and usurious activities.

According to the theory of Thomas Aquinas, all things on Earth belong not to people, but to God. That is why by their nature they should be common. The philosopher condemned usury, but insisted on the need for the existence of estates and private property.

Creation of schools of economic theory

The gloomy times of the Middle Ages are over. But the main problems of economic science have not been resolved. They consisted in the fact that the philosophers of the countries of the Ancient World, as well as the Middle Ages, were unable to formulate a single teaching. Their views had a fragmentary character.

The Renaissance was the period of the creation of the first school of economic theory. It was called mercantilism, which in Latin means "to trade." Adherents of this theory identified the wealth of the nation with silver and gold, the source of which was the sphere of circulation. Representatives of this school were not theoreticians. Most of them were merchant seafarers.

In those times when great geographical discoveries were not made, early mercantilism was formed. Actually this direction was until the middle of the 16th century. Representatives of this school saw only legislative ways to increase wealth. They forbade the export of silver and gold, and also limited import operations.

From the 16th to the middle of the 17th century, late mercantilism got its dawn. The basis of the teaching of this school was an increase in the flow of exports, compared with imports of goods. Adherents of the school of late mercantilism believed that, while maintaining an active trade balance, the country would become richer. Representatives of this trend were allowed to export gold and silver from the country. This allowed for profitable trade transactions. At the same time, imports were heavily taxed, and exports were welcomed in every possible way.

Problems of economic science after the second half of the 18th century. Solved the doctrine of the Physiocrats. On its basis, a school of French economists was established.

The physiocrats asserted that the source of wealth of any nation is the sphere of material production, and not circulation. At the same time they speak about the importance of only agricultural work. Adherents of this theory divide the whole of society into three classes:

- farmers;
- the owners of the land;
- All other citizens.

The last of these three classes of physiocrats was called barren.

Classical school of political economy

This direction received its name for the truly scientific nature of its methodologies and theories. School of political economy emerged in the late 17th century, reaching its heyday in the 18th and 19th centuries. In the development of this trend, four stages can be singled out. The first of these lasted from the end of the 17th to the second half of the 18th century. This was a period when market relations developed rapidly, and economic thought focused on the sphere of production. Representatives of this school, among them were the Englishman William Petty and the Frenchman Pierre Boisguilberg, argued that the nation becomes rich not only because of precious metals. Significant role in this play also houses and land, goods and ships.

In the last third of the 18th century. The second stage of the development of classical political economy began. In this period were written the works of Adam Smith - the Scottish philosopher and economist. He made an invaluable contribution to the development of the economy, expounding this discipline as an integral theory, finding the interconnection between all its elements. A. Smith argued that only personal interest motivates a person to economic activity. According to the philosopher, all people are striving to accumulate wealth and improve their financial situation. At the same time, the activities carried out by the individual contribute to the flourishing of society. The philosopher believed that the laws of the economy will operate only in conditions of free competition and the unimpeded movement of capital, money and goods.

In the first half of the 19th century. The third stage of development of the school of political economy began. This was the period when the industrial revolution ended in most developed countries.

A vivid representative of this school was D. Riccardo. They completed the creation of a classical political economy. Ricardo's undoubted merit is his presentation of discipline in logical sequence and systematization of economic knowledge available at that time. Scientists formulated a theory of comparative advantage, which served as evidence of the mutual advantage of international trade.

An important place for economic science in the development of society was proved at the fourth and final stage of the school of classical political economy, which began its existence in the second half of the 19th century. The most prominent representatives of this trend were John Stuart Mill and Karl Marx.

In their works, scientists relied on the provisions of the classical school, but at the same time pioneered innovative ideas. They argued about the need for the state to participate in the economic and social development of society, talked about the socialist system, defended and defended the interests of the working class. Thus, Karl Marx created the theory of the inevitable death of capitalism and the possibility of establishing a society without private property, which later was not confirmed in practice.

Modern schools

Many new economic trends were formed at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. These schools are considered to be modern. At a time when economic science has become an applied one, a direction has emerged such as institutionalism. The name of this term means "mode of action", as well as "customs" and "instruction".

The main stages in the development of economic science to institutionalism were the consideration of various spheres of society. But this school, unlike all the rest, is built on the idea of implementing "social control" over the economic sphere.

Institutionalism went through three stages in its development. The end of the first of these falls on the 20-30s of the 20th century. The second stage lasted until the 1960s and 1970s. This was a period of consideration of demographic problems, the study of the trade union movement and the contradictions that exist in the social and economic development of capitalism. At the third stage, the school's representatives studied the impact of the processes taking place in the economic sphere on the social life of society.

Institutionalism has several directions:

- social and legal;
- psychological;
- conjunctural and statistical.

Among the new economic trends, marginalism stands out. Its representatives, the first in the history of this science, attempted to investigate market phenomena using mathematical methods, initiated the theory of the location of productive forces, explained the behavior of people by their desire to obtain maximum utility, and so on.

There are also new theories of economics, such as Keynesianism and Neo-Keynesianism, dirigism and post-Keynesianism, neoliberalism and monetarism.